INGLESE T HYSTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION

James II was a catholic and tried to reintroduce Catholicism into England and Scotland, or at last to put Catholicism on an equality with the Anglican religion. Rebellions broke out but soon doomed, and a lot of rebels were executed. But the English hoped for better times, since James heir was Mary, the wife of William of orange, champion of the protestant cause in Europe, but when a son was born to James, the English lost hope, and a n invitation to come over England was secretly sent to William of Orange. William landed in England on November 5, 1668.

He and his wife were offered to the throne jointly and crowned king and queen as William III and Mary II.

The English called the political changes of this time the Glorious revolution, because they were peaceful and non violent.The new monarchs were allowed to reign under certain conditions: they were obliged to sign the bill of rights, which limited the power of the king in favour of the parliament. Two more acts were passed: the Toleration act, giving freedom of worship to dissenters, but not to Catholics, and the act of Settlement, stating that Catholics claimants were excluded from the throne. It also stated that on the death of William III, the throne would pass to Mary's sister, Anne.

THE AUGUSTAN AGE

The term Augustan age is traditionally used to indicate the first half of the 18^th century, covering the reigns of Anne and the Hanoverians George I and II. The origin of the term is usually traced to the writers of the time, who wished to identify themselves with the ancient writers of the Augustan Empire, at the height of prosperity.

This period is also called Enlightment.

SOCIAL BACKGROUND

The first year of the century saw a rapid development in social life and especially coffee houses became the centre of it. Open to a large number of people and not as exclusive as the clubs, it had a great levelling influence; they also were forum for the discussions and circulation of news, mostly because newspapers had not begun to provide business information. One of the most important was Lloyd's coffee house which grew in the world's greatest maritime insurance company.

The new social patterns led to a new outlook on life and to appreciation of middle‑class values, class who was growing in power, specially thanks to the new colonial trades. Mercantilism brought competition in commerce and an unequal distribution of wealth. Sanitation was virtually unknown and, especially in London, the filth of the slums caused illnesses and diseases. Other problems included the very bad condition of prisons.

JOURNALISM

A new impulse to the spreading of news came in the 15th century, when Gutenberg invented movable‑type printing and the first printed new‑sheet was published in 1457. The first European daily paper appeared in 1670 and was soon followed everywhere. But England was slow in the spread of journalism, due above all to the political situation and to the restriction of the government. Anything printed was subject of censorship, but when it was abolished in 1694, the journalism spread all over England (some punishments however remained).

The abolition of censorship brought also to the improvement of the journalistic style. The first important periodical was started by Daniel Defoe and was called the Review. The two most important journalists of the time were Richard Steele and Joseph Addison.

THE TATLER

It was begun by Richard Steele, who decided that this newspaper should contain not only news about politics, but also articles on many other topics such as fashion and gossip. It was in the form of a single sheet, published 3 times a week until 1711 when it was replaced by the Spectator, conducted by Addison and Steele. Addison proposed two things: to reform by amusing and to revive his countrymen's interest in the ancient classics.

The Spectator's great success was due to some factors:

it was published daily (in single sheets printed on both sides), so that reading it become almost an habit;

it coincided with the rise of the English middle‑class, to which it offered models of social and moral behaviour;

it was concerned also with culture and literature;

It was written such in a way as to be understood and enjoyed by educated people.

THE REALISTIC NOVEL

The growht of the novel reading - public brought about a series of changes both in the reader - writer relationship and in the purpose and structure of the novel itself. The writer, whose profession was now becoming profitable, began to write to please a public of largely middle - class readers. Many of the latter were shopkeepers, clerks or merchants, who were no longer interested in ancient mythology, or "collective tradition", but wanted to read about things close to their own individual experience.

Sensitive to new tastes and tendencies of the day, novelists began to rejects conventional plots and the ancient, classical model still proposed by some important critics, and look to reality for inspiration. Increasingly, therefore, the novel became a "picture of life", and classifiable as "realistic" not only because of what it presented, but above all for "how" it presented it.

Elements that characterized the 18^th century realistic novel:

Characters were endowed with actual names and surnames,

"clock time" and "physical settings" began to be used. Were made tangible thoughts the use of precise details,

certain "communicating qualities" became of primary importance,

attention was focused not only on outdoor settings, but more and more frequently on "interiors",

greater importance was given to money a s a status symbol,

a triangular conflict was emphasized between "bourgeois" values and "chivalric" values and the values of the "traditional gentleman",

a new type of protagonist developed, practical, self - made and self - reliant, endowed with common sense and prudence.

INGLESE T DANIEL DEFOE

DANIEL DEFOE

Daniel Defoe was born in London in 1660 and he was educated at a college for dissenters.

In 1685 he took part in an abortive rebellion against the election of the Catholic king James II; but was able to escape punishment and, in 1688, he joined the army of William of Orange. In 1692 he went bankrupt and so, in order to find money for his debts, he worked as a journalist but he also joined himself with literature. In 1704 he started a newspaper "The Review", written single - handed and published regularly. In 1715 he became a secret agent.

In 1719 Defoe turn suddenly to prose fiction, not for literary purposes, but by considering it a kind of business activity.

His most important works were:

The Review

The Shortest way to the dissenters, in which the author ironically advocated the total suppression of all dissenters.

Robinson Crusoe

Moll Flanders

A journal of the plague year

FEATURES

Despite the many works he wrote, Defoe's fame is almost entirely due to his novel. When he was 60 he decises to write true stories, all contining a moral lesson. In these novels there are some general features:

They are usually presented in the form of a diary or autobiography, related in the first person singular in order to increase verisimilitude,

There is a very linear plot, composed by events all around the same protagonist,

There is only one main character , compelled to struggle against many misfortunes. These features derives from the puritan ideal of the self - made individual,

The characters usually stands alone, not only physically but also psychologically,

There is very little sentimentalism, and even in the most tragic situation, there's little despair,

All the novels contain prayers and expressions of gratitude to God and they all end with the protagonist repenting his mischiefs.

All the most important novels contain "picaresque" elements:

Some characters are rogues, who exploit the society they live in,

There is sometimes a satire of the 18^th century English society,

ROBINSON CRUSOE

The book is based on a real event: the experience of Alexander Selkirk, a seaman who in 1704 was put ashore on his own request, on a desert island in the Pacific Ocean from which he was rescued in 1709. Robinson Crusoe is a travel narrative which is made up of 3 separate sections:

The first: Robinson leaves his family at the age of 19 and goes away to sea to make fortune, and after many misfortunes he lands in Brazil, where he become a successful planter. One day, on his way to Africa, he is shipwrecked on a remote island.

The second describes Robinson's life on his island where he spent almost 28 years, during which he keeps a daily journal.

The third section describes Robinson's return to Europe, when he learns that his plantation in Brazil made him rich and where he has also other adventures.

COMMENT TO THE PASS "COMFORTS AND MISERIES"

After the shipwreck. Robinson is musing on his own conditions: he's alone on a desert island but he is alive. This is his first positive reaction to a situation in which other might have despaired. The other comforts come next. Also God, who cannot obviously be assent in such a list, follows in the second and last paragraphs. This is also the message that Defoe seems to convey to all of us, since it contains a still topical teaching: it is of no use to complain and loose heart in the plights of life, because it leads only to useless discomfort and despair. It's in the most critical moments that we can prove our moral strength. Let us always start from the positive things, even if few, which may enable us to react, both materially and psychologically, to the miseries of the moment. A second option is that Robinson, to divert his mind from gloom and dejection decide to write down his thoughts as a self - therapy.

FRIDAY

Before meeting Friday, Robinson has been living in solitude for more than 24 years. When he decides is high time he looked for someone to help him, one day, overcoming his fear and his inborn prudence, he saves Friday from the cannibals and finally gets his slave. What seems to prevail is that for Robinson Friday represents the prospective serf who will be "very useful for him".

MOLL FLANDERS

Moll Flanders was born in Newgate prison, the daughter of a thief sentenced to death. When her mother manages to have her sentence changed and is transported to Virginia, Moll is brought up in the house of major Colchester. She's very pretty and, at the age of 14, she is sent to the service of a rich family. After being seduced by the eldest son f this family she goes through 5 marriages, she has children, she becomes a prostitutes and a thief in order to survive. She's sent to Virginia where, working hard, she becomes a rich plantation owner. She finally goes back to England where she leads a respectable life, after his repentance.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE NOVEL

The story develops around several characters and describes urban society. Setting the novel in London Defoe gives information about the costumes of the time. The novel includes documents in order to increase the illusion of the realistic representation. Moll's word contains many tangible things, described only in terms of their market value. That's the only important thing in Moll's world: counting and evaluating of the things according to the wealth they represent. In a way Moll is Robinson's female counterpart: like Crusoe her reflections and actions have economics basis account - like mentality. She is a clear representative of the middle - class, as she's obsessed with appearance and she regards poverty as a sin.

STYLE

First - person narration, characterization rarely focuses on personal relationships but it stresses the experiences of the heroine in a simple and direct style, aimed at creating a strong sense of sympathy in the reader. The passage speaks about one of Moll's men, whom she robs a s a stupid. She also works as a prostitute but she gains much more money in robbing.

INGLESE T JONATHAN SWIFT

Satire is the employment of speaking or writing of sarcasm in denouncing abuses or evils of any kind.

JONATHAN SWIFT

Swift was born in Dublin of English parents. In 1694, after being ordained as an Anglican clergyman, he went back to Ireland, where he was given the pre‑bend of Kilroot. Years later he was given the pre‑bend of S. Patrick cathedral. In 1738 an infection in his left year grew worse and he began to have frequent attack of dizziness. His melancholy deepened with a growing sense of isolation. In 1742 he was paralysed by a stroke after which his mind began to fall until 1745 when he died utterly insane. Many myths have been created about Swift hatred for mankind and about his misanthropic character, but except for this he was a man capable of profound and harmonious feelings. His most important works were:

The battle of the books, in which he defended the ancient style and mocked his modem rivals,

A Tale of a tub in which he describes the failings of the churches presented by three brothers: Peter (catholic), Martin (Lutheran) and Jack (Protestant),

A modest proposal

Gulliver's travels, where Gulliver appears to be gullible, stolid and unimaginative.

GULLIVER'S TRAVELS

This satire can be divided into 4 books:

J     Book 1: Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon, begins by describing his shipwreck on the island of Lilliput, whose inhabitants are very small dwarves. Gradually he becomes involved in court intrigues and eventually helps the Lilliputians in a war. Then he manages to return to England.

J     Book 2: once more restless Gulliver leaves his family and sails to India, but he's set ashore on the island of Brodbingnag, whose inhabitants are as tall as giants. After becoming a kind of pet for the children he has an interesting conversation with the king, about English and European culture; then he goes back to England.

J     Book 3: ten days after his return he sets out to sea for the third time but, as a consequence of a pirate attack, he visits the floating island of Laputa and its capital Lagado, where he meets scientists who spend their lives in absurd researches. He then visits another island in which he meets great figures of the past and another island whose inhabitants are extremely unhappy because, endowed with immortality, they can never die. He then goes back home again.

J     Book 4: five months later he's set ashore by the crew of the ship, in a country inhabited by the Houyhnhnms, a race of intelligent horses, who are served by disgusting beasts with human shape: the Yahoos. After trying to become a Houyhnhnms himself he goes back home, where he finds out that his family is like the Yahoos.

This satire can be considered at various levels, and has indeed the merit of appealing both adults and children, however only adult can fully appreciate the true force of Swift's implications and mastery of style

RATIONALITY VS. ANIMALITY

J     Book 1: rationality is represented by the Lilliputians with their perfect organization and knowledge of all sciences, in contrast with Gulliver, described only as a body dominated by physical needs. Lilliputians however used their rationality for domination.

J     Book 2: the giants now embodying animality and Gulliver rationality, thanks to skill and ability.

J     Book 3: the main themes are science, philosophy and their value as evidence of man's rationality. But these purposes are ridiculed to show that men are too proud of rationality and have forgotten their basic common sense.

J     Book 4: here reason is represented in its extreme, pure form by the horses, in contrast with the bodies of the abominable Yahoos.

A MODEST PROPOSAL

Swift was a real master of irony and satire, as he's able to say the most shocking things in the most natural possible way. A modest proposal was inspired by the dreadful conditions Swift found in Ireland, where famine and starvation were widespread because of a series of ruinous harvest, also due to the mismanagement by the Irish themselves. The style in which is written is so earnest that some foreign readers of the time took it for a genuine suggestion as a solution to the desperate economic conditions. The climax is obviously in the macabre proposal of producing babies for the meat market and selling them as food; this is also an opportunity to attack other targets such as poverty, overpopulation and voluntary abortion.

But also Swift, being an Irish man himself attacks his countrymen too, telling that they have refused a lot of proposals to improve their conditions. On one hand there are English landlords, who have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title on their children; on the other hand the people of Ireland, who, with their mismanagement, are consuming their own wealth.

THE KING'S CONSIDERATION

Gulliver is invited to illustrate the institutions of England by the king of Brobdingnag and speaking about this he idealizes his country. But the king is not fooled by his panegyric and understands what England is actually like. What emerges from his negative comments is the picture of a country dominated by hypocrisy and corruption. The king is obviously presented from Gulliver's point of view, but is actually Swift's voice that we can hear behind the king, whose irony is summed up with the bitter sarcasm of defending men as vermin. This means to regard them as dangerous to society, vile and worthless. The word little emphasizes the insignificant dimension of the vermin, both in a figurative and in a real sense.

MAD SCIENTISTS

In the capital of Laputa, the city of Lagado, Gulliver meets several scientists, all conducing absurd and useless researches. The first scientist he meets is trying to extract sun‑beams out of cucumbers, and asks Gulliver to give him some money for this research. The second man he meets, who Gulliver at the beginning doesn't want to meet for his horrible stink is trying to reduce human excrement to its original food, by separating the several parts, removing the colour and the stink. After that Gulliver sees a man who is at work to calcine ice into gun‑powder, who also shows Gulliver a treatise he had written on the malleability of fire. The next scientist tried to build houses by beginning at the roof, like insects. Another man who was born blind, was teaching his apprentices how to recognise colour for painter by feeling and smelling them, but he made a lot of mistakes. The last one he sees explains him that there are some insects able, not only to weave, but also to spin: for example spiders. Also giving coloured flies as food for spiders, they could weave coloured threads.

In this passage Swift appears to satirize contemporary trends, particularly the obsession with new theories and abstract thoughts.